1. The first Director-General of A.S.I. (Archaeological Survey of India) was ____________.
(a) R. E. M. Wheeler
b) Alexander Cunningham
c) Sir John Marshall
(Chapter 1 : Bricks, Beads and Bones - The Harappan Civilisation)

Ans: b) Alexander Cunningham

2.The center of Craft Production in Harappan Civilization was _______________.
(a) Dholavira
(b) Chanhudaro
(c) Kalibangan.
(Chapter 1 :Bricks, Beads and Bones - The Harappan Civilisation)

Ans: Chanhudaro

3.Name any two centres for making shell objects in the Harappan Civilisation.
(Chapter 1 :Bricks, Beads and Bones - The Harappan Civilisation)

Ans: Nageshwar and Balakot

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4. Why do we say that the Harappans were concerned about the privacy of their homes ?
(Chapter 1: Bricks, Beads and Bones - The Harappan Civilisation)

Ans: Because

• there are no windows in the walls along the ground level.
• The main entrance does not give a direct view of the interior or the courtyard.

5.What was the nature of the Drainage System in the Harappan Civilization?
(Chapter 1: Bricks, Beads and Bones - The Harappan Civilisation)

Ans:
One of the most distinctive features of Harappan cities was the carefully planned drainage system. If you look at the plan of the Lower Town you will notice that roads and streets were laid out along an approximate “grid” pattern, intersecting at right angles. It seems that streets with drains were laid out first and then houses built along them.
Every house had its own bathroom paved with bricks, with drains connected through the wall to the street drains. House drains first emptied into a sump or cesspit into which solid matter settled while waste water flowed out into the street drains.

6."John Marshall's stint as Director General of the Archaeological Survey of India marked a major change in Indian Archaeology." Explain the statement.
(Chapter 1: Bricks, Beads and Bones - The Harappan Civilisation)

Ans:

• He was the first professional archaeologist to work in India, and brought his experience of working in Greece and Crete to the field.
• More importantly, though like Cunningham he too was interested in spectacular finds, he was equally keen to look for patterns of everyday life.

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7.Examine how archaeologists have used burials to find out the social and economic differences amongst Harappan people.
(Chapter 1: Bricks, Beads and Bones - The Harappan Civilisation)

Ans:

• At burials in Harappan sites the dead were generally laid in pits.
• Sometimes, there were differences in the way the burial pit was made – in some instances, the hollowed-out spaces were lined with bricks just giving an indication of social differences.
• Some graves contain pottery ,ornaments, jewellery for both men and women perhaps indicating a belief that these could be used in the afterlife.

8.Analyse the areas of Cunningham’s confusion in understanding the significance of Harappa.
(Chapter 1: Bricks, Beads and Bones - The Harappan Civilisation)

Ans:

• A site like Harappa, which was not part of the itinerary of the Chinese pilgrims and was not known as an Early Historic city, did not fit very neatly within his framework of investigation.
• Harappan artefacts were found fairly often during the nineteenth century and some of these reached Cunningham, but he did not realise how old they were.
• A Harappan seal was given to Cunningham by an Englishman. He noted the object, but unsuccessfully tried to place it within the time-frame with which he was familiar as he thought Indian history began with the first cities in the Ganga valley.

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9.Write any two factors that led to the end of the Harappan civilization.
(Chapter 1: Bricks, Beads and Bones - The Harappan Civilisation)

Ans:
Climatic change, deforestation, excessive floods, the shifting and/or drying up of rivers, and overuse of the landscape are considered some important factors that led to the end of the Harappan civilization.

10.Explain the Great Bath as a notable structure in the Indus Valley civilization.
(Chapter 1: Bricks, Beads and Bones - The Harappan Civilisation)

Ans:

• The Great Bath was a large rectangular tank in a courtyard surrounded by a corridor on all four sides.
• There were two flights of steps on the north and south leading into the tank, which was made watertight by setting bricks on edge and using a mortar of gypsum.
• There were rooms on three sides, in one of which was a large well.
• Water from the tank flowed into a huge drain. Across a lane to the north lay a smaller building with eight bathrooms, four on each side of a corridor, with drains from each bathroom connecting to a drain that ran along the corridor.
• The uniqueness of the structure, as well as the context in which it was found has led scholars to suggest that it was meant for some kind of a special ritual bath.

11.Discuss the Domestic Architecture of the Harappan Civilization.
(Chapter 1 : Bricks, Beads and Bones - The Harappan Civilisation)

Ans:

• The courtyard was probably the centre of activities such as cooking and weaving, particularly during hot and dry weather.
• The privacy is given more importance as there are no windows in the walls along the ground level. Besides, the main entrance does not give a direct view of the interior or the courtyard.
• Every house had its own bathroom paved with bricks, with drains connected through the wall to the street drains.
• Some houses have remains of staircases to reach a second storey or the roof.
• Many houses had wells, often in a room that could be reached from the outside and perhaps used by passers-by.
• Scholars have estimated that the total number of wells in Mohenjodaro was about 700.

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12.Discuss the Religious Practices of the Harappan Civilization.
(Chapter 1 : Bricks, Beads and Bones - The Harappan Civilisation)

Ans:

• The religious beliefs and practices of Harappan Civilization is made by examining seals, some of which seem to depict ritual scenes.
• Seals plant motifs, are thought to indicate nature worship.
• Some animals – such as the one-horned animal, often called the "unicorn" – depicted on seals seem to be mythical, composite creatures.
• In some seals, a figure shown seated cross-legged in a "yogic" posture, sometimes surrounded by animals, has been regarded as a depiction of "proto-Shiva", that is, an early form of one of the major deities of Hinduism.
• Besides, conical stone objects have been classified as lingas.

13."The most unique feature of the Harappan civilization was the development of domestic architecture." Substantiate the statement.
(Chapter 1 : Bricks, Beads and Bones - The Harappan Civilisation)

Ans:

• The courtyard was probably the centre of activities such as cooking and weaving, particularly during hot and dry weather.
• The privacy is given more importance as there are no windows in the walls along the ground level. Besides, the main entrance does not give a direct view of the interior or the courtyard.
• Every house had its own bathroom paved with bricks, with drains connected through the wall to the street drains.
• Some houses have remains of staircases to reach a second storey or the roof.
• Many houses had wells, often in a room that could be reached from the outside and perhaps used by passers-by.
• Scholars have estimated that the total number of wells in Mohenjodaro was about 700.

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14.Analyse the problems being faced by the archaeologists to reconstruct the religious practices of Harappans.
(Chapter 1 : Bricks, Beads and Bones - The Harappan Civilisation)

Ans:

• Archaeologists thought that certain objects which seemed unusual or unfamiliar may have had a religious significance for example terracotta figurines of women, heavily jewelled, some with elaborate headdresses.They were considered as mother goddesses.
• Rare stone statuary of men in an almost standardised posture, seated with one hand on the knee – such as the "priest-king" – were classified as male goddesses.
• Structures have been assigned ritual significance for example the Great Bath and fire altars found at Kalibangan and Lothal.
• Attempts have also been made to reconstruct religious beliefs and practices by examining seals, some of which seem to depict ritual scenes.
• Having plant motifs, are thought to indicate nature worship.
• Some animals – such as the one-horned animal, often called the "unicorn" – depicted on seals seem to be mythical, composite creatures.
• In some seals, a figure shown seated cross-legged in a "yogic" posture, sometimes surrounded by animals, has been regarded as a depiction of "proto-Shiva".

15.How is faience made of?
(Chapter 1 : Bricks, Beads and Bones - The Harappan Civilisation)

Ans:
Faience is a material made of ground sand or silica mixed with colour and a gum and then fired.

16.What are Hoards?
(Chapter 1 : Bricks, Beads and Bones - The Harappan Civilisation)

Ans:
Hoards are objects kept carefully by people, often inside containers such as pots. Such hoards can be of jewellery or metal objects saved for reuse by metalworkers. If for some reason the original owners do not retrieve them, they remain where they are left till some archaeologist finds them.

17.Ancient Mesopotamian texts refer to copper coming from a place called ‘Magan’.Which place were they referring to?
(Chapter 1 : Bricks, Beads and Bones - The Harappan Civilisation)

Ans: Oman

18.Write a short note on Mesopotamian texts.
(Chapter 1 : Bricks, Beads and Bones - The Harappan Civilisation)

Ans:

• Mesopotamian texts dating to the third millennium BCE refer to copper coming from a region called Magan, perhaps a name for Oman.
• Mesopotamian texts mention contact with regions named Dilmun, Magan and Meluhha, possibly the Harappan region.
• They mention the products from Meluhha: carnelian, lapis lazuli, copper, gold, and varieties of wood.
• A Mesopotamian myth says of Meluhha: "May your bird be the haja-bird, may its call be heard in the royal palace."
• Mesopotamian texts refer to Meluhha as a land of seafarers.

19.Explain bead-making during Mohenjodaro and Harappa civilisation.
(Chapter 1 : Bricks, Beads and Bones - The Harappan Civilisation)

Ans:

• The variety of materials used to make beads is remarkable: stones like carnelian, jasper, crystal, quartz and steatite; metals like copper, bronze and gold; and shell, faience and terracotta or burnt clay.
• Some beads were made of two or more stones, cemented together, some of stone with gold caps.
• The shapes of beads were numerous – disc shaped, cylindrical, spherical, barrel-shaped, segmented.
• Some were decorated by incising or painting, and some had designs etched onto them.
• Techniques for making beads differed according to the material. Steatite, a very soft stone, was easily worked.
• Some beads were moulded out of a paste made with steatite powder. This permitted making a variety of shapes, unlike the geometrical forms made out of harder stones.

20.What materials were used to make beads in Chanhudaro?
(Chapter 1 : Bricks, Beads and Bones - The Harappan Civilisation)

Ans:
The variety of materials used to make beads is remarkable: stones like carnelian (of a beautiful red colour), jasper, crystal, quartz and steatite; metals like copper, bronze and gold; and shell, faience and terracotta or burnt clay. Some beads were made of two or more stones, cemented together, some of stone with gold caps. Steatite, a very soft stone, was easily worked. Some beads were moulded out of a paste made with steatite powder.