Q 1. ____________ refers to those attributes of a person that make her/him different from others.

Ans: Personal identity

Q 2. __________ refers to those aspects of a person that link her/him to a social or cultural group.

Ans: Social identity

Q 3. Define Self-esteem.

Ans: As an individual we always judge its value or worth, this judgment that we pass on ourselves is called self-esteem.

Q 4. The way we perceive ourselves and the ideas we hold about our competencies and attributes is called ___________.
(a)Self-efficacy
(b) Self-esteem
(c)Self-concept
(d) Self-regulation

Ans: (c) Self-concept

Q 5.What is self? How does the Indian notion of self differ from the Western notion?

Ans:
Self refers to the totality of an individual’s conscious experiences, ideas, thoughts, and feelings with regard to herself or himself.
Analysis of self in a Indian culture reveals a lot of important features that are distinct from the western culture.Here are some of the important points

• One important feature is the boundary drawn between self and the other. Incase of western culture the boundary is relatively fixed. But incase of indian sometimes it expands to include others and in some cases it is focused on the individual self i.e personal needs and goals.
• In western culture there is clear dichotomies (two things that are different) between self and other, man and nature , objective and subjective.But incase of Indian culture there is no clear dichotomies defined.
• In western culture the boundaries between the self and the group is clearly defined i.e the self and the group often remain at a distance. In case of Indian culture the self is not separated from the group but they both remain in harmonious co-existence.

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Q 6. ___________ refers to our characteristic ways of responding to individuals and situations.

Ans: Personality

Q 7. How do you define personality? What are the main approaches to the study of personality?

Ans: Personality is derived from the Latin word persona, the mask used by actors in the Roman theatre for changing their facial make-up.

In terms of Psychology Personality refers to our characteristic ways of responding to individuals and situations.

Personality can also be defined as the unique and relatively stable qualities that characterise an individual’s behaviour across different situations over a period of time.
Following are the approaches used in the study of personality.

• Type approach : focuses on behavioural characteristics of individuals.
• Trait approach :focuses on the specific psychological attributes in an individuals like for example one person may be less shy in comparison to others; or one person may be less friendly, whereas another may be more.
• Behavioural Approach: focuses on as to how an individual behaves when exposed in a particular environment.A person tend to learn new behaviors in response to the environments and stimuli.
• Cultural Approach : focuses on the personality in relation to ecological and cultural environment.
• Humanistic Approach : focuses on the study real self and the ideal self.

Q 8. List the features that characterize personality.

Ans:
Personality is characterised by the following features:

• It has both physical and psychological components.
• Its expression in terms of behaviour is fairly unique in a given individual.
• Its main features do not easily change with time.
• It is dynamic in the sense that some of its features may change due to internal or external situational demands. Thus, personality is adaptive to situations.

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Q 9.What is meant by delay of gratification? Why is it considered important for adult development?

Ans:
Delay of gratification means having a control over ourselves, and learning to delay and defer the satisfaction of certain needs.It is also known as Self control.
Human beings can control the behaviour as they want. Delay of gratification or self-control is very important in development as :

• It helps to achieve long term goals.
• In Indian culture there are festivals where you need to fast which helps in developing self control.
• Observing our own behaviour helps us to change, modify, or strengthen certain aspects of self.
• Self instruction to self regulate ourselves.

Q 10.List the psychological techniques of self-control.
OR
State techniques of self regulation.

Ans:
Following are the techniques suggested for self-control :

• Observation of own behaviour : helps to change, modify, or strengthen certain aspects of self.
• Self-instruction :We often instruct ourselves to do something and behave the way we want to. Such instructions are quite effective in self-regulation.
• Self-reinforcement : This involves rewarding behaviours that have pleasant outcomes. For example, you may go to see a movie with friends, if you have done well in an examination.

Q 11.Differentiate between personal self and relational self.

Ans:

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Q 12.How are extroverts different from introverts according to Jung?

Ans:
Jung has proposed another important typology by grouping people into introverts and extraverts. According to Jung,

• Introverts are people who prefer to be alone, tend to avoid others, withdraw themselves in the face of emotional conflicts, and are shy.
• Extraverts, on the other hand, are sociable, outgoing, drawn to occupations that allow dealing directly with people, and react to stress by trying to lose themselves among people and social activity.

Q 13.Explain the classification of traits given by Allport.

Ans:

• Allport said that individuals possess a number of traits which are dynamic and that determine their behaviour in such a way that people approach different problems with similar plans.
• Allport classified the different traits seen in people into three categories and they are cardinal traits, central traits and secondary traits.
• The cardinal traits are highly generalized disposition that indicate the goal around which the person’s entire life seems to revolve.Mahatma Gandhi’s non-violence and Hitler’s Nazism are examples of cardinal traits.
• Less pervasive in effect, but yet quite generalized dispositions are called central traits.These traits are used to write testimonials and job recommendations for a person.
• The least generalized dispositions of a person are called secondary traits.They are very personal and unique to the person.Traits such as ‘likes mangoes’ or ‘prefers ethnic clothes’ are examples of secondary traits.
• Allport considered traits to be variables that played a role between the stimulus and the reaction of the person. Thus any change in the traits would elicit a different response to the same situation.

Q 14.Analyse Alfred Adler’s approach to Personality.

Ans:
Alfred Adler’s theory is known as individual psychology.

• His basic assumption is that human behaviour is purposeful and goal directed.
• Our personal goals are the sources of our motivation. The goals that provide us with security and help us in overcoming the feelings of inadequacy are important in our personality development.
• In Adler’s view, every individual suffers from the feelings of inadequacy and guilt, i.e. inferiority complex, which arise from childhood. Overcoming this complex is essential for optimal personality development.

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Q 15.Differentiate between self-esteem and self-efficacy.

Ans:

Q 16.Differentiate between self as subject and self as object.

Ans:

Q 17.Analyse TAT as a projective technique.
OR
Analyse the Thematic Apperception Test.

Ans:
TAT stands for Thematic Apperception Test.
This test was developed by Morgan and Murray.The test procedure is as follows:

• The test consists of 30 black and white picture cards and one blank card.
• Each picture is printed on the card and it depicts one or more people in a variety of situations.
• Some cards are used with adult males or females ,some are used with boys or girls and rest in some other combination.
• The cards are presented one at a time and the subject is asked to tell a story describing the situation presented in the picture.Questions like what led up to the situation, what is happening at the moment, what will happen in the future, and what the characters are feeling and thinking? are to be answered.
• A standard procedure is available for scoring TAT responses. The test has been modified for children and for the aged. Uma Chaudhury’s Indian adaptation of TAT is also available.

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Q 18.____________is a state in which people have reached their own fullest potential.

Ans:self-actualisation.

Q 19.Explain humanistic approach to personality.

Ans: Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow have contributed to the development of humanistic approach to personality.
Here are some ideas and assumptions proposed by Roger/Mashlow for humanistic approach

• Roger believes that fulfilment is the motivating force for personality development .People try to express their capabilities, potentials and talents to the fullest extent possible.
• About human behaviour Roger makes two assumptions: One is that behaviour is goal-directed and worthwhile.Second is that people (who are innately good) will almost always choose adaptive, self-actualising behaviour.
• Rogers views personality development as a continuous process. It involves learning to evaluate oneself and mastering the process of self-actualisation.
• He recognises the role of social influences in the development of self-concept. When the social conditions are positive ,the self-concept and self-esteem are high. In contrast, when the conditions are negative, the self-concept and self-esteem are low.
• Roger client-centred therapy, states to create an atmosphere of unconditional positive regard in order to ensure enhancement of people’s self-concept.
• Maslow has done a lot of studies on self-actualisation, a state in which people have reached their own fullest potential.He has an optimistic and positive view of man who has the potential for love, joy and to do creative work.

Q 20.A formal effort aimed at understanding the personality of an individual is termed as ___________.

Ans:personality assessment

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Q 21.Describe the key features of self-report measures used in personality assessment.

Ans:
Self-Report measure was suggested by Allport and he believed the best method to assess a person is by asking her/him about herself/himself.
Here is the list of self-report measures and their key features.
1.The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)

• Hathaway and McKinley developed this test as a helping tool for psychiatric diagnosis, but it also helped in identifying varieties in psychopathology.
• Its revised version is available as MMPI-2. It consists of 567 statements.
• The subject on whom the test is conducted has to judge each statement as "true" or "false".
• The test is divided into 10 subscales, which seek to diagnose hypochondriasis, depression, hysteria, psychopathic deviate, masculinity-femininity, paranoia, psychasthenia, schizophrenia, mania and social introversion.
• In India, Mallick and Joshi have developed the Jodhpur Multiphasic Personality Inventory (JMPI) along the lines of MMPI.

• Eysenck developed this test and it assessed two dimensions of personality, called introverted-extraverted and emotionally stable-emotionally unstable.He later added the third dimension called psychoticism.
• These dimensions are characterised by 32 personality traits.
• This test is linked to psychopathology that represents a lack of feeling for others, a tough manner of interacting with people, and a tendency to defy social conventions.
• A person scoring high on this dimension tends to be hostile, egocentric, and antisocial.

• Cattell developed this test.
• The test provides with declarative statements, and the subject responds to a specific situation by choosing from a set of given alternatives.
• The test can be used with high school level students as well as with adults.
• It has been found extremely useful in career guidance, vocational exploration, and occupational testing.

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Q 22.Explain the techniques of behavioural analysis used in personality assessment.

Ans:
Observation of behaviour serves as the basis of behavioural analysis. The observer report can obtain data from interview, observation, ratings, nomination, and situational tests.
Here are key features of behavioural analysis:

Interview :Interview is a commonly used method for assessing personality.It mainly deals with talking to the person by asking specific questions.
Interview can be structured or unstructured based on the goal and purpose of the assessment.
Unstructured Interview : In unstructured interviews, the interviewer seeks to develop an impression about a person by asking a number of questions.
The way a person presents her/ himself and answers the questions carries enough potential to reveal her/his personality.
Structured Interview:addresses very specific questions and follow a set procedure. This is often done to make objective comparison of persons being interviewed.

Observation : Behavioural observation is another method which is very commonly used for the assessment of personality.
For Behaviour observation it requires careful training of the observer, and a fairly detailed guideline about analysis of behaviours in order to assess the personality of a given person.It cannot be carried out by untrained people.
For example a clinical psychologist will observe his/her client interaction with family members and home visitors.After careful observation only the clinical psychologist will be able to comment on client’s personality.

Behavioural Ratings :Behavioural ratings are frequently used for assessment of personality in educational and industrial settings.
Behavioural ratings are generally taken from people who know the assessee over a period of time.
They attempt to put individuals into certain categories in terms of their behavioural qualities. The categories may involve different numbers or descriptive terms.

Nomination :

• This method is often used in obtaining peer assessment.
• It can be used with persons who have known each other for a long time.
• Each person has to choose one or more persons from the group with whom they would like to work, interact or do a task.The person later has specify the reason for her/his choices.
• Nominations received is analysed to understand the personality and behavioural qualities of the person.
• This test is highly dependable and can be biased.

• situational stress test is one of the commonly used test for personality assessment.
• It provides us with information about how a person behaves under stressful situations.
• The test requires a person to perform a given task with other persons who are instructed to be non-cooperative and interfering.
• The person is instructed to play a role for which s/he is observed. A verbal report is also obtained on what s/he was asked to do.
• The situation may be realistic one, or it may be created through a video play.

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Q 23.Explain behavioural ratings used in assessment of personality.

Ans:
Behavioural ratings are frequently used for assessment of personality in educational and industrial settings. Behavioural ratings are generally taken from people who know the assessee over a period of time. They attempt to put individuals into certain categories in terms of their behavioural qualities. The categories may involve different numbers or descriptive terms.

The method of rating suffers from the following major limitations:
(1) Raters often display certain biases that colour their judgments of different traits. For example, most of us are greatly influenced by a single favourable or unfavourable trait. This often forms the basis of a rater’s overall judgment of a person. This tendency is known as the halo effect.

(2) Raters have a tendency to place individuals either in the middle of the scale (called middle category bias) by avoiding extreme positions, or in the extreme positions (called extreme response bias) by avoiding middle categories on the scale.

Q 24.Analyse nomination and situational tests as methods of personality assessment.

Ans:
Nomination :

• This method is often used in obtaining peer assessment.
• It can be used with persons who have known each other for a long time.
• Each person has to choose one or more persons from the group with whom they would like to work, interact or do a task.The person later has specify the reason for her/his choices.
• Nominations received is analysed to understand the personality and behavioural qualities of the person.
• This test is highly dependable and can be biased.

• situational stress test is one of the commonly used test for personality assessment.
• It provides us with information about how a person behaves under stressful situations.
• The test requires a person to perform a given task with other persons who are instructed to be non-cooperative and interfering.
• The person is instructed to play a role for which s/he is observed. A verbal report is also obtained on what s/he was asked to do.
• The situation may be realistic one, or it may be created through a video play.

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Q 25.Explain 16 PF as a self report measure.

Ans:
Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16 PF)

• Cattell developed this test.
• The test provides with declarative statements, and the subject responds to a specific situation by choosing from a set of given alternatives.
• The test can be used with high school level students as well as with adults.
• It has been found extremely useful in career guidance, vocational exploration, and occupational testing.

Q 26.Explain Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ) as Self Report measure.

Ans:
Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ)

• Eysenck developed this test and it assessed two dimensions of personality, called introverted-extraverted and emotionally stable-emotionally unstable.He later added the third dimension called psychoticism.
• These dimensions are characterised by 32 personality traits.
• This test is linked to psychopathology that represents a lack of feeling for others, a tough manner of interacting with people, and a tendency to defy social conventions.
• A person scoring high on this dimension tends to be hostile, egocentric, and antisocial.

Q 27.Explain The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) as Self Report measure.

Ans:
The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)

• Hathaway and McKinley developed this test as a helping tool for psychiatric diagnosis, but it also helped in identifying varieties in psychopathology.
• Its revised version is available as MMPI-2. It consists of 567 statements.
• The subject on whom the test is conducted has to judge each statement as "true" or "false".
• The test is divided into 10 subscales, which seek to diagnose hypochondriasis, depression, hysteria, psychopathic deviate, masculinity-femininity, paranoia, psychasthenia, schizophrenia, mania and social introversion.
• In India, Mallick and Joshi have developed the Jodhpur Multiphasic Personality Inventory (JMPI) along the lines of MMPI.

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Q 28.Explain interactional approach to personality. OR
Explain the interactional approach to understand personality.

Ans:
In case of interactional approach:

• Situation plays a very important role in determining our behaviour.
• People will behave in a different way based on the reward / punishment on that particular situation.
• The cross situational consistency of traits is found to be quite low.
• The influence of situations can be noted by observing people's behaviour in places like a market, a courtroom, or a place of worship.

Q 29.Give two limitations of behavioral ratings.

Ans:
Behavioral rating suffers from the following major limitations:
(1) Raters often display certain biases that colour their judgments of different traits. For example, most of us are greatly influenced by a single favourable or unfavourable trait. This often forms the basis of a rater’s overall judgment of a person. This tendency is known as the halo effect.
(2) Raters have a tendency to place individuals either in the middle of the scale (called middle category bias) by avoiding extreme positions, or in the extreme positions (called extreme response bias) by avoiding middle categories on the scale.