Q 1. How would your understanding of body language help in communicating effectively?
(Chapter 9 : Developing Psychological Skills)

Ans:
Non-verbal acts are symbolic and closely connected to any talk in progress. Such non-verbal acts are part of what is called "body language".Body language is composed of all those messages that people exchange besides words.

• A single non-verbal act does not convey the complete meaning and factors such as gestures, postures, eye contact, clothing style, and body movement together form a cluster.
• A person’s background and past patterns of behaviour are to be considered when we analyse body language.
• An example of body language is we consciously wave at waiters or friends to catch their attention.

Q 2. Explain any three situational factors leading to aggression.
(chapter 8 : Psychology and Life)

Ans:
Learning

• Among human beings aggression is mostly the result of learning rather than an expression of an inborn tendency.
• An individuals may exhibit aggression because they have found it rewarding for example a hostile aggression allows the aggressive person to get what s/he wants.
• Individuals also learn to be aggressive by observing others showing aggression and is called as learning through modelling.

• If a child observes aggression and violence on television, s/he may start imitating that behaviour and it is said to be learning aggression through modelling.
• Violence and aggression shown on television and the film media have a powerful influence on the viewers, especially the children.
• Whether the violence seen on television makes a person aggressive ,it depends completely on the information obtained from situational factors.

• If a person watches a movie that shows violence, and later made to feel angry for example by insulting or threats, physical aggression, or dishonesty by another person, s/he may be more likely to show aggression than if s/he is not made to feel angry.
• As per studies done on aggression/frustration shows that provoking the person and making her/him angry was one way of inducing frustration.

Q 3. State any four factors influencing pro-social behaviour.
(Chapter 6: Attitude and Social Cognition)

Ans:

• Pro-social behaviour is based on an inborn, natural tendency in human beings to help other members of their own species. This inborn tendency facilitates survival of the species.
• Pro-social behaviour is influenced by learning. Individuals who are brought up in a family environment that sets examples of helping others, shows more prosocial behaviour than individuals who are brought up in a family environment devoid of these features.
• Cultural factors influence pro-social behaviour. Some cultures actively encourage people to help the needy and distressed.In cultures that encourage independence, individuals will show less pro-social behaviour, because people are expected to take care of themselves, and not to depend on help from others.
• Pro-social behaviour is affected by the expected reactions of the person who is being helped. For example, people might be unwilling to give money to a needy person because they feel that the person might feel insulted, or may become dependent.

Q 4. State the salient feature of dissociative amnesia.
(Chapter 4 : Psychological Disorders)

Ans:

• Dissociative amnesia is characterised by extensive but selective memory loss that has no known organic cause (e.g., head injury).
• Some people cannot remember anything about their past.
• Others can no longer recall specific events, people, places, or objects, while their memory for other events remains intact.
• This disorder is often associated with an overwhelming stress.

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Q 5. Explain the interactional approach to understand personality.
(Chapter 2: Self and Personality)

Ans:
In case of interactional approach

• Situation plays a very important role in determining our behaviour.
• People will behave in a different way based on the reward / punishment on that particular situation.
• The cross situational consistency of traits is found to be quite low.
• The influence of situations can be noted by observing people’s behaviour in places like a market, a courtroom, or a place of worship.

Q 6. With the help of an example, explain how cognitive dissonance leads to attitude change.
(Chapter 6: Attitude and Social Cognition)

Ans:
The concept of cognitive dissonance was proposed by Leon Festinger.
Here is an example of cognitive dissonance:
Think about the following ideas ("cognitions") :
Cognition I : Pan masala causes mouth cancer which is fatal.
Cognition II : I eat pan masala
Considering these two ideas or cognitions will make any individual feel that something is ‘out of tune’, or dissonant, in the attitude towards pan masala. Therefore, one of these ideas will have to be changed, so that consonance can be attained. In the example given above, in order to remove or reduce the dissonance, I will stop eating pan masala (change Cognition II). This would be the healthy, logical and sensible way of reducing dissonance.

Q 7. State any three causes of aggression.
(chapter 8 : Psychology and Life)

Ans:
Inborn tendency

• Aggressiveness is an inborn tendency among human beings. Biologically, this inborn tendency may be meant for self-defence.

• Aggression could also be indirectly triggered by physiological mechanisms, especially by the activation of certain parts of the brain that play a role in emotional experience.
• A general physiological state of arousal, or feeling activated, might often be expressed in the form of aggression. An example of it is crowding, especially in hot and humid weather.

• The way an individual is brought up often influences her/his aggressiveness.
• For example, children whose parents use physical punishment end up becoming more aggressive than children whose parents use other disciplinary techniques.
• Physical punishment makes the child angry and resentful; as the child grows up, s/he expresses this anger through aggressive behaviour.

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Q 8. Illustrate the TWO categories of substance use disorder.
(Chapter 4: Psychological Disorders)

Ans:
The two categories of substance-use disorder are :
Substance dependence

• In substance dependence, there is an intense craving for the substance to which the person is addicted, and the person shows tolerance, withdrawal symptoms and compulsive drug-taking.
• Tolerance means that the person has to use more and more of a substance to get the same effect.
• Withdrawal refers to physical symptoms that occur when a person stops or cuts down on the use of the substance.

• In substance abuse, there are recurrent and significant adverse consequences related to the use of substances.
• People who regularly ingest drugs damage their family and social relationships, perform poorly at work, and create physical hazards.

Q 9. Explain social cognition with the help of suitable examples.
(Chapter 6: Attitude and Social Cognition)

Ans:
"Social cognition" refers to all those psychological processes that deal with the gathering and processing of information related to social objects.It includes all the processes that help in understanding, explaining and interpreting social behaviour.

• The processing of information related to social objects i.e particularly individuals, groups, people, relationships, social issues differs from the processing of information related to physical objects.
• People as social objects may themselves change as the cognitive process takes place.
• An example is a teacher who observes a student in school may draw conclusions about her/him that are quite different from the conclusions drawn by the student’s mother, who observes her/him at home. The student may show a difference in her/his behaviour, depending on who is watching her/him - the teacher or the mother.

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Q 10. Differentiate between interpersonal and intrapersonal communication.
(Chapter 9: Developing Psychological Skills)

Ans:

Q 11. Explain the major consequences of crowding.
(Chapter 8: Psychology and Life)

Ans:
Following are the major consequences of crowding:

• Crowding and high density may lead to abnormal behaviour and aggression.A study was conducted on rats that proved about it.These animals were placed in an enclosure, initially in small numbers. As their population increased within this enclosed space, they started showing aggressive and unusual behaviour, such as biting the tails of other rats. The aggressive behaviour increased so much that the animals died in large numbers.Same behaviour can be seen among human beings where in such condition it can lead to a lot of violence.
• Crowding leads to lowered performance on difficult tasks that involve cognitive processes, and has adverse effects on memory and the emotional state.
• Children growing up in very crowded households show lower academic performance. They also show a weaker tendency to continue working on a task if they are unsuccessful at it, compared to children growing up in non-crowded households.
• The nature of social interaction determines the degree to which an individual will react to crowding. For example, if the interaction is on a happy social occasion, like party or public celebration, the presence of a large number of persons may cause no stress at all. Rather, it may lead to positive emotional reactions. At the same time, crowding, also influences the nature of social interaction.
• Personal space, or the comfortable physical space one generally likes to maintain around oneself, is affected by a high density environment. In a crowded context, there is a restriction on personal space, and this can also be a cause of negative reactions to crowding.

Q 12. Differentiate between dissociative amnesia and depersonalization.
(Chapter 4: Psychological Disorders)

Ans:

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Q 13. What is social facilitation?
(Chapter 6: Attitude and Social Cognition)

Ans:
One of the first observations made about social behaviour was that performance on specific tasks is influenced by the mere presence of others. This is called social facilitation.
For example, Reena is about to participate in a music contest. She is very talented, yet she is feeling very nervous about the event.

Q 14. State any three strategies for handling prejudice.
(Chapter 6: Attitude and Social Cognition)

Ans:
Knowing about the causes or sources would be the first step in handling prejudice.
Thus, the strategies for handling prejudice would be effective if they aim at :
(a) minimising opportunities for learning prejudices,
(b) changing such attitudes,
(c) de-emphasising a narrow social identity based on the ingroup, and
(d) discouraging the tendency towards self-fulfilling prophecy among the victims of prejudice.

Q 15. Critically evaluate the method of behavioural rating for assessing personality.
(Chapter 2: Self and Personality)

Ans:
Behavioural Ratings

• Behavioural ratings are frequently used for assessment of personality in educational and industrial settings.
• Behavioural ratings are generally taken from people who know the assessee over a period of time.
• They attempt to put individuals into certain categories in terms of their behavioural qualities.The categories may involve different numbers or descriptive terms.

Q 16. Explain the relationship between creativity and intelligence.
(Chapter 1: Variations in Psychological Attributes)

Ans:
Here is a list that shows the relationship between creativity and intelligence.

• People with high IQ were not necessarily creative,creative ideas could come from persons who did not have a very high IQ.
• The same person, can be creative as well as intelligent but it is not necessary that intelligent ones must be creative.Intelligence, therefore, by itself does not ensure creativity.
• Relationship between creativity and intelligence is positive.
• All creative acts require some minimum ability to acquire knowledge and capacity to comprehend, retain, and retrieve. For example creative writers need facility in dealing with language. The artist must understand the effect that will be produced by a particular technique of painting, a scientist must be able to reason and so on.Hence, a certain level of intelligence is required for creativity but beyond that intelligence does not correlate well with creativity.

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Q 17. Ecological environment influences our occupation, living style and attitudes.Justify.
(Chapter 8: Psychology and Life)

Ans:

• The environment of a region determines whether people living in that region rely on agriculture, or on other occupations such as hunting and gathering, or on industries.
• Occupation decides the lifestyle and attitudes of the people staying in that region.
• People who depend on agriculture as their occupation has to depend on the collective efforts of its members and hence members of an agricultural society develop an attitude of cooperativeness, and consider group interests more important than the individual’s wishes.
• They are also closer to nature, more dependent on natural events such as the monsoon, and may face situations in which necessary natural resources such as water are in limited supply.
• People dependent on industries for their occupation are less close to the society,they have independent thinking,develop an attitude of competitiveness and less dependent on nature.

Q 18. Give the meaning of attribution? Explain fundamental attribution error with the help of an example.
(Chapter 6: Attitudes and Social Cognition)

Ans:
We are also interested in why people behave in the ways they do ,that is, we assign causes to the behaviour shown in specific social situations. This process is called attribution.
In making attributions, there is an overall tendency for people to give greater weightage to internal or dispositional factors, than to external or situational factors. This is called the fundamental attribution error. This tendency is stronger in some cultures than it is in others. For example, research shows that Indians tend to make more external (situational) attributions than Americans do.

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Q 19. State three conditions which facilitate group formation.
(Chapter 7: Social Influence and Group Processes)

Ans:
Basic to group formation is some contact and some form of interaction between people.
This interaction is facilitated by the following conditions:
Proximity
Repeated interactions with the same set of individuals give us a chance to know them, and their interests and attitudes. Common interests, attitudes, and background are important determinants of your liking for your group members.
Similarity

• Being exposed to someone over a period of time makes us assess our similarities and paves the way for formation of groups.
• The reason given by psychologist for group formation between similar people or liking between similar people is when two people are similar, there is consistency and they start liking each other.For example, you like playing football and another person in your class also loves playing football; there is a matching of your interests. There are higher chances that you may become friends.
• Another explanation given by psychologists is that when we meet similar people, they reinforce and validate our opinions and values, we feel we are right and thus we start liking them.

• When people have common motives or goals, they get together and form a group which may facilitate their goal attainment.
• Suppose you want to teach children in a slum area who are unable to go to school.You cannot do this alone because you have your own studies and homework. You, therefore, form a group of like-minded friends and start teaching these children. So you have been able to achieve what you could not have done alone.

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Q 20. "Poverty begets poverty".Justify the statement.
(Chapter 8: Psychology and Life)

Ans:
The poverty cycle is another important cause of poverty that explains why poverty tends to continue among the same sections of society and hence it is said that poverty begets poverty.
Starting with a low income and lack of resources, the poor go through low health and nutrition, lack of education, and lack of skills.This leads to low employment opportunities, which, in turn, continue their low income condition, and low health and nutrition status. The resulting lowered motivational level only makes the situation worse; the cycle starts and continues again.

Q 21. Explain the A-B-C components of an attitude.
(Chapter 6: Attitude and Social Cognition)

Ans:
Attitude is a state of the mind, a set of views, or thoughts, regarding some topic which has an evaluative feature (positive, negative or neutral quality).
Attitude is accompanied by A-B-C components and they are:
Affective Component : is an emotional component.
Behavioural Component:a tendency to act in a particular way with regard to the attitude object is categorised as behavioural component.
Cognitive Component:The thought component is referred to as the cognitive aspect.
Here is an example of a situation where we can categorise the A-B-C component.Consider your village is part of tree plantation campaign.
Your thought towards this campaign of tree plantation is positive (cognitive aspect).
You feel happy when you see greenery and sad when the trees are cut (emotional ie affective component).
If you happen to participate in this campaign your involvement is coming in behavioral component.
In general, we expect all three components to be consistent with each other, that is, in the same direction.However, such consistency may not necessarily be found in all situations.

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Q 22. Explain the role of culture in listening.
(Chapter 9: Developing Psychological Skills)

Ans:

• Like the brain, the culture in which we have been brought up also influences our listening and learning abilities.
• Asian cultures, such as India, emphasise on listening by being a silent communicator when receiving messages from seniors or elders.
• Some cultures focus on controlling attention.For example Buddhism, has a notion called "mindfulness". This means devoting your complete attention to whatever you are doing.
• Training in "mindfulness" which starts in childhood can help to develop longer attention spans and therefore, lead not only to better listening but also to sympathetic listening.

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Q 23. Suggest three strategies for reducing aggression and violence.
(Chapter 8: Psychology and Life)

Ans:
Following are the strategies suggested for reducing aggression and violence:

• Parents and teachers should be more careful not to encourage or reward aggression in any form. The use of punishment to bring about discipline also needs to be changed.
• Opportunities to observe and imitate the behaviour of aggressive models should be reduced drastically. Portraying aggression as heroic behaviour should be particularly avoided, because this may set the stage for learning through observation.
• Poverty and social injustice may be a prominent cause of aggression, because they can cause frustration in certain sections of society. Implementing social justice and equality in society may help in reducing frustration levels and thereby curb aggressive tendencies at least to some extent.

Q 24.State promotive actions to protect the environment from pollution.
(Chapter 8: Psychology and Life)

Ans:
Some promotive actions to protect the environment from pollution are :

• Reducing air pollution by keeping vehicles in good condition, or changing to non-fuel driven vehicles, stopping the practice of smoking.
• Reducing noise pollution by ensuring that noise levels are low, for example, discouraging needless honking on the road, or making rules regarding noisy music at certain hours.
• Managing disposal of garbage sensibly, for example, by encouraging separation of biodegradable garbage from nonbiodegradable waste, or composting of kitchen waste. Special attention has to be paid to the management of industrial and hospital waste.
• Planting trees and ensuring their care, keeping in mind that those plants and trees should not be planted that have adverse health effects.
• Saying 'no' to plastics in any form, thus reducing toxic wastes that pollute water, air and the soil.
• Reducing the non-biodegradable packaging of consumer goods.
• Laws related to construction (especially in urban areas)that violate optimal environmental design

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Q 25.How does spiritual perspective explain human-environment relationship?
(Chapter 8: Psychology and Life)

Ans:

• The spiritual perspective refers to the view of the environment as something to be respected and valued rather than exploited.
• It implies that human beings recognise the interdependent relationship between themselves and the environment, i.e. human beings will exist and will be happy only as long as the environment is kept healthy and natural.
• The traditional Indian view about the environment supports the spiritual perspective.There are two examples that practice this and they are Bishnoi community of Rajasthan, and the Chipko movement in the Uttarakhand region.

Q 26.Suggest any THREE strategies for poverty alleviation?
(Chapter 8: Psychology and Life)

Ans:
Following are the strategies taken for poverty alleviation:

• Breaking the poverty cycle, and helping the poor to attain self-sufficiency i.e. by giving financial relief, medical and other facilities.It also has to make sure that this help of financial and other things does not make the poor dependent on these sources for their livelihood.
• Creating a context for making the poor take responsibility instead of blame for their poverty. This step will help them to regain a sense of hope, control and identity.
• Providing educational and employment opportunities, following the principles of social justice that will the poor people to discover their own abilities and skills and also reduce crime and violence by reducing frustration, and by encouraging the poor to earn their livelihood through legal rather than illegal means.

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Q 27.What is aggression? Describe any TWO causes.
(Chapter 8: Psychology and Life)

Ans:
Psychologists use the term "aggression" to refer to any behaviour by one person/ persons that is intended to cause harm to another person/persons.
Following are the views about the causes of aggression:
Inborn tendency: Aggressiveness is an inborn tendency among human beings (as it is in animals). Biologically, this inborn tendency may be meant for self-defence. Physiological mechanisms: Aggression could also be indirectly triggered by physiological mechanisms, especially by the activation of certain parts of the brain that play a role in emotional experience. For example, aggression can result from a sense of crowding, especially in hot and humid weather.

Q 28.Describe Type-A personality.
(Chapter 2: Self and Personality)

Ans:

• People characterised by Type-A personality seem to possess high motivation, lack patience, feel short of time, be in a great hurry, and feel like being always burdened with work.
• Such people find it difficult to slow down and relax.
• People with Type-A personality are more susceptible to problems like hypertension and coronary heart disease (CHD). The risk of CHD is more serious than high blood pressure,high cholesterol levels, or smoking.

Q 29.State three characteristics of pro-social behaviour.
(Chapter 6: Attitude and Social Cognition)

Ans:
The behaviour that involves doing good to others ,being helpful,thinking about the welfare of others without any self-interest is called pro-social behaviour.
The three characteristics of pro-social behaviour are :

• aim to benefit or do good to another person or other persons,
• be done without expecting anything in return,
• be done willingly by the person, and not because of any kind of pressure

Q 30.Describe crowding tolerance.
(Chapter 8: Psychology and Life)

Ans:
Crowding tolerance refers to the ability to mentally deal with a high density or crowded environment, such as a crowded residence (a large number of persons within a small room). People who are used to an environment containing many persons around them for example individual born and brought up in joint families develop more crowding tolerance than people who are used to only a few people around them.

Q 31. Explain the cognitive dissonance component in attitude change process.
(Chapter 6: Attitude and Social Cognition)

Ans:
The concept of cognitive dissonance was proposed by Leon Festinger.
Here is an example of cognitive dissonance:
Think about the following ideas ("cognitions") :
Cognition I : Pan masala causes mouth cancer which is fatal.
Cognition II : I eat pan masala
Considering these two ideas or cognitions will make any individual feel that something is ‘out of tune’, or dissonant, in the attitude towards pan masala. Therefore, one of these ideas will have to be changed, so that consonance can be attained. In the example given above, in order to remove or reduce the dissonance, I will stop eating pan masala (change Cognition II). This would be the healthy, logical and sensible way of reducing dissonance.

Q 32. Explain autistic disorder. (consider any 3 points)
(Chapter 4: Psychological Disorders)

Ans:

• Autistic disorder or autism is one of the most common forms of Pervasive Developmental Disorders , a serious disorder seen in children.
• Children with autistic disorders have shown difficulties in social interaction and communication, a restricted range of interests, and strong desire for routine.
• About 70 per cent of children with autism are also mentally retarded.
• Children with autism experience have profound difficulties in relating to other people,lack social interaction, unresponsive to other people’s feelings.They are unable to share experiences or emotions with others.
• They have trouble with communication and those who do can talk, mostly talks repetitive and deviant speech patterns.
• Children with autism often show narrow patterns of interests and their behaviour in some cases is repetitive .For example body movements like rocking, hand flapping .They also can self-injure themselves such as banging their head against the wall.

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Q 33. State the three characteristics of an effective counsellor.
(Chapter 9 - Developing Psychological Skills)

Ans:
Here is the list of characteristics of an effective counsellor:
(i) Authenticity
Authenticity means that your behavioural expressions are consistent with what you value and the way you feel and relate to your inner self-image. Your image or perception of yourself makes up your "I".Those who know you like friends , teachers etc build their own image of you for themselves. The degree to which you are aware of these perceptions of others as well as of your own perception of yourself indicates that you are self-aware.The authenticity helps to a large extent for a client to communicate with you easily.

(ii) Positive regard for others
In order to show positive regard to others, the following guidelines may be kept in mind:
(1) When you are speaking, get into the habit of using "I" messages rather than "you" messages. An example of this would be, "I understand" rather than "you should not".
(2) Respond to what the other person has said, after checking with her/him.
(3) Give the other person the freedom to share feelings or anything s/he wants to say. Do not interrupt or cut in.
(4) Do not assume that the other person knows what you are thinking. Express yourself according to the frame of reference, i.e. in the context of the verbal exchange taking place.
(5) Do not label either yourself or the other person (e.g., "you are an introvert", etc.).

(iii) Ability to empathise
Empathy is the ability of a counsellor to understand the feelings of another person from her/his perspective.It is like stepping into someone else's shoes and trying to understand the pain and troubled feelings of the other person.

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Q 34. How does understanding of body language help in effective communication?
(Chapter 9 - Developing Psychological Skills)

Ans:

• Body language is composed of all those messages that people exchange besides words.
• While reading body language, we must remember that a single non-verbal signal does not carry complete meaning. Factors such as gestures, postures, eye contact, clothing style, and body movement — all of them have to be considered together, that is, in a cluster.
• In verbal communication, non-verbal signs can have many different meanings. For example, crossing arms over the chest may suggest that a person likes to keep aloof. But, crossed arms accompanied by an erect posture, tightened body muscles, a set clenched jaw, and narrowing of the eyes are likely to communicate anger.
• We use body language to encourage or discourage conversation. For instance, we consciously wave at waiters or friends to catch their attention.

Q 35. Elaborate the ABC components of attitude.
(Chapter 9 - Developing Psychological Skills)

Ans:
Attitude is a state of the mind, a set of views, or thoughts, regarding some topic which has an evaluative feature (positive, negative or neutral quality).
Attitude is accompanied by A-B-C components and they are:
Affective Component : is an emotional component.
Behavioural Component:a tendency to act in a particular way with regard to the attitude object is categorised as behavioural component.
Cognitive Component:The thought component is referred to as the cognitive aspect.
Here is an example of a situation where we can categorise the A-B-C component.Consider your village is part of tree plantation campaign.
Your thought towards this campaign of tree plantation is positive (cognitive aspect).
You feel happy when you see greenery and sad when the trees are cut (emotional ie affective component).
If you happen to participate in this campaign your involvement is coming in behavioral component.
In general, we expect all three components to be consistent with each other, that is, in the same direction.However, such consistency may not necessarily be found in all situations.

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Q 36.Differentiate between delusions and hallucinations.
(Chapter 4 - Psychological Disorders)

Ans:
Delusion and Hallucinations are mostly seen in people suffering from schizophrenia.
Here is list of differences between delusion and hallucination:

Q 37.Explain non-verbal communication.
(Chapter 9 - Developing Psychological Skills)

Ans:

• It is possible to communicate a great deal even without using verbal language. Non-verbal acts are symbolic and closely connected to any talk in progress. Such non-verbal acts are part of what is called "body language".
• Body language is composed of all those messages that people exchange besides words.
• While reading body language, we must remember that a single non-verbal signal does not carry complete meaning. Factors such as gestures, postures, eye contact, clothing style, and body movement — all of them have to be considered together, that is, in a cluster.
• In verbal communication, non-verbal signs can have many different meanings. For example, crossing arms over the chest may suggest that a person likes to keep aloof. But, crossed arms accompanied by an erect posture, tightened body muscles, a set clenched jaw, and narrowing of the eyes are likely to communicate anger.

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Q 38.Explain encoding in human communication.
(Chapter 9 - Developing Psychological Skills)

Ans:

• When we communicate, we encode (that involves: take ideas, give them meaning and put them into message forms), and send the idea through a channel.
• It is composed of our primary signal system based on our senses (i.e., seeing, hearing, tasting, smelling, and touching).
• The message is sent to someone who receives it using her or his primary signal system. S/he decodes (i.e., translates message into understandable forms).
• For example :
  • You may say that you heard a bell or an object feels soft. These are examples of verbal communication which express how you understand the signals your senses have received.
  • You can also respond at a nonverbal level. You touch a hot stove, your fingers pull away quickly, and your eyes well up with tears. The pulling away of fingers and welling up of eyes with tears will communicate to an onlooker the pain suffered by you.

Q 39.Describe substance-use disorders.
(Chapter 4 - Psychological Disorders)

Ans:
Disorders relating to maladaptive behaviours resulting from regular and consistent use of the substance involved are called substance abuse disorders.
These disorders include problems associated with using and abusing such drugs as alcohol, cocaine and heroin, which alter the way people think, feel and behave.
There are two sub-groups of substance-use disorders, i.e. those related to substance dependence and those related to substance abuse.
Substance dependence

• In substance dependence, there is an intense craving for the substance to which the person is addicted, and the person shows tolerance, withdrawal symptoms and compulsive drug-taking.
• Tolerance means that the person has to use more and more of a substance to get the same effect.
• Withdrawal refers to physical symptoms that occur when a person stops or cuts down on the use of the substance.

• In substance abuse, there are recurrent and significant adverse consequences related to the use of substances.
• People who regularly ingest drugs damage their family and social relationships, perform poorly at work, and create physical hazards.

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Q 40.Explain Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) giving examples.
(Chapter 8 - Psychology and Life)

Ans:
Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a severe psychological problem that results from traumatic events such as natural disasters like earthquakes, tsunamis, floods, cyclones, and volcanic eruptions.
This disorder has the following features.:
Immediate reaction: people take time to understand what the disaster has done to their life. Also some people may actually deny to themselves that something terrible has happened.

Physical reactions, issues like bodily exhaustion even without physical activity, difficulty in sleeping, change in the eating pattern, increased heartbeat and blood pressure, and getting startled easily can be found among the victims.

Emotional reactions, such as grief and fear, irritability, anger, helplessness, hopelessness , depression, sometimes absolute lack of emotion (numbness), guilt feelings for having survived while someone else in the family died, blaming oneself, and lack of interest in even routine activities.

Cognitive reactions, such as worry, difficulty in concentration, reduced span of attention, confusion, loss of memory, or vivid memories that are unwanted (or nightmares of the event).

Social reactions, such as withdrawal from others, getting into conflict with others, having frequent arguments with even loved ones, and feeling rejected or left out.