1.__________________stands for a relatively permanent change in a behavioural tendency which occurs as a result of reinforced practice.
(Chapter 6 - Learning)

Ans: Learning

2.Learning disabled children have disorders of attention. Explain.
(Chapter 6 - Learning)

Ans:

• They get easily distracted and cannot sustain attention on one point for long.
• Attentional deficiency leads to hyperactivity, i.e. they are always moving, doing different things, trying to manipulate things incessantly.

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3. State two points of difference between Primary reinforcer and Secondary reinforcer.
(Chapter 6 - Learning)

Ans:

4.Explain Observational learning with examples.
(Chapter 6: Learning)

Ans:
Learning takes place by Observing others. Here is an example that explains it:
Example 1:Fashion designers employ tall, pretty, and gracious young girls and tall, smart, and well-built young boys for popularising clothes of different designs and fabrics. People observe them on televised fashion shows and advertisements in magazines and newspapers. They imitate these models.
Example 2: children observe adults behaviours, at home and during social ceremonies and functions. They enact adults in their plays and games. For instance, young children play games of marriage ceremonies, birthday parties, thief and policeman, house keeping, etc. Actually they enact in their games what they observe in society, on television, and read in books.
Observing superiors and likeable persons and then emulating their behaviour in a novel social situation is a common experience.
Children learn most of the social behaviours by observing and emulating adults.

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5.A small girl catches an inflated balloon which bursts in her hands making a loud noise. She gets very scared. The next time she is made to hold a balloon, the fear response returns. Name the kind of learning involved in this situation.
(Chapter 6: Learning)

Ans: S–S learning.

6.Explain negative reinforcement with the help of an example.
(Chapter 6: Learning)

Ans: Responses that lead organisms to get rid of painful stimuli or avoid and escape from them provide negative reinforcement.Negative reinforcers involve unpleasant and painful stimuli. Negative reinforcement leads to learning of avoidance and escape responses. For example, one learns to put on woollen clothes, burn firewood or use electric heaters to avoid the unpleasant cold weather.

7.What is Skinner's most famous contribution to psychology?
(Chapter 6: Learning)

Ans: Skinner first investigated operant or instrumental conditioning (OC). An operant is any response voluntarily emitted by an organism. OC is a type of learning in which response is strengthened if followed by reinforcement. A reinforcer can be any event that increases the frequency of preceding response. Thus, the consequence of a response is crucial. The rate of OC is influenced by the type, number, schedule, and delay of reinforcement.

8.What is dyslexia?
(Chapter 6: Learning)

Ans: Dyslexia is a learning disability that is seen in chidrens. In dyslexia children often fail to copy letters and words; for example, they fail to distinguish between b and d, p and q, P and 9, was and saw, unclear and nuclear, etc. They fail to organise verbal materials.

9.What is insight learning?
(Chapter 6: Learning)

Ans: Insight learning is the process by which the solution to a problem suddenly becomes clear.

10.Explain positive reinforcement with an example.
(Chapter 6: Learning)

Ans: Positive reinforcement involves stimuli that have pleasant consequences. They strengthen and maintain the responses that have caused them to occur. Positive reinforcers satisfy needs, which include food, water, medals, praise, money, status, information, etc.

11.State the factors affecting sustained attention.
(Chapter 6: Learning)

Ans:
Following factors affect sustained attention :
a) Sensory modality: Performance is found to be superior when the stimuli (called signals) are auditory than when they are visual.
b) Clarity of stimuli is another factor.Intense and long lasting stimuli facilitate sustained attention and result in better performance.
c) Temporal uncertainty is a third factor. When stimuli appear at regular intervals of time they are attended better than when they appear at irregular intervals.
d) Spatial uncertainty is a fourth factor. Stimuli that appear at a fixed place are readily attended, whereas those that appear at random locations are difficult to attend.

12.Explain the different learning styles?
(Chapter 6: Learning)

Ans:
Learning styles are mainly derived from Perceptual Modality, Information Processing,and Personality Patterns.
Perceptual Modality are biologically-based reactions to the physical environment. It refers to the preferences of persons through which they take in information such as auditory, visual, smell, kinesthetic, and tactile.
Information Processing distinguishes between the way we are structured to think, solve problems, and remember information. This may be thought of as the way we process information. For example, active/reflective, sensing/intuitive, sequential/global, serial/simultaneous, etc.
Personality Patterns are the way we interact with our surroundings. Each one of us has a preferred, consistent, and distinct way of perceiving, organising, and retaining information. This approach focuses on understanding how personality affects the way people interact with the environment, and how this affects the way individuals respond to each other within the learning environment.

13.What are learning disabilities ?
(Chapter 6: Learning)

Ans:
It refers to a heterogeneous group of disorders manifested in terms of difficulty in the acquisition of learning, reading, writing, speaking, reasoning, and mathematical activities. The sources of such disorders are inherent in the child.

14. "Learning shows resistance to extinction". How?
(Chapter 6: Learning)

Ans:
Extinction means disappearance of a learned response due to removal of reinforcement from the situation in which the response used to occur.
Resistance to extinction increases with increasing number of reinforcements during acquisition trials, beyond that any increase in number of reinforcement reduces the resistance to extinction. Studies have also indicated that as the amount of reinforcement (number of food pellets) increases during the acquisition trials, resistance to extinction decreases.
If the reinforcement is delayed during acquisition trials, the resistance to extinction increases. Reinforcement in every acquisition trial makes the learned response to be less resistant to extinction. In contrast, intermittent or partial reinforcement during acquisition trials makes a learned response more resistant to extinction.

15.________________ may be defined as a learner's consistent way of responding to and using stimuli in the context of learning.
(Chapter 6: Learning)

Ans: Learning style

16.The simplest kind of learning is called ____________.
(Chapter 6: Learning)

Ans: conditioning

17.Category that is used to refer to the number of objects and events is known as _________.
(Chapter 6: Learning)

Ans: concept